A few years ago, I was fortunate to own a remarkable boxed set titled The Fragrant Past: Perfumes of Cleopatra & Julius Caesar, a collection that captured the essence of ancient times through the recreation of seven historical fragrances. This set, created exclusively for an exhibition at the Emory University Museum of Art & Archaeology in 1989, brought the olfactory history of the ancient world to life. Each scent was a window into the past, allowing one to experience the aromas that might have once filled the air during the reigns of Cleopatra and Julius Caesar. The perfumes themselves were prepared by Professor Giuseppe Donato, a distinguished figure in the world of applied fragrance technologies. As Director Emeritus of the Institute of Applied Technologies at the National Research Council of Italy, Donato meticulously reconstructed these ancient formulas, blending his extensive knowledge of historical ingredients and ancient techniques.
These perfumes were non-alcoholic, oil-based compositions, designed to mimic the original formulations used in antiquity. The oil base gave them a rich, smooth texture that absorbed into the skin, transforming them into intimate "skin scents." Unlike modern perfumes with their expansive sillage, these ancient fragrances remained close to the body, evoking a sense of personal ritual and quiet luxury. The scents would whisper rather than shout, enveloping the wearer in a subtle aura rather than projecting outward.
The experience of wearing these perfumes was akin to stepping back in time, into the courts of Cleopatra or the streets of ancient Rome. The rich historical context, combined with the understated nature of these skin scents, made them a deeply personal and evocative journey. Each fragrance spoke of ancient rituals, sacred ceremonies, and the daily life of a long-gone era, preserving a sensory connection to the past.
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It was this set of fragrances that inspired me to research the most famous perfumes in Ancient Rome and Greece, but I wanted to concentrate more on Egypt. The first perfumes in Egypt were aromatics kindled as incense to the gods, but this was then extended to perfumes for the body as well. In ancient times, perfumes were in the form of unguents and oils.
Perfumes and fragrant gums were held by the Egyptians in high esteem, and played an important part in their lives. “The consumption of perfumed unguents and aromatics,” says Ebers, “must have been enormous at the highest tide of Egyptian splendor. The people were actually enjoined to perfume themselves on Fridays. The foods, sweetmeats, and sherbets were flavored with perfumes, and their fragrance filled the air in every well-to-do house. The women bathed in perfumed water and the men used the scented unguents for their bodies. During great festivals incense was burnt in the streets, so that even the poorest participated and enjoyed the perfumed air. At their banquets the guests waded through roses, and costly perfumes floated in the air. Chaplets and wreaths of flowers were laid upon the altars and offered to the deities, whose statues were frequently crowned with them. On the occasion of festivals, the guests on their arrival were met by slaves, who anointed their heads with perfumed unguents and hung chaplets of lotus about their necks. The apartment was festooned with flowers, and the table and floor were strewn with sweet-smelling flower blossoms."
An Introduction to Ancient Egyptian Unguents:
The word unguent is derived from the Latin unguentum, meaning "ointment." In ancient times, unguents were luxurious, richly perfumed oils that served both cosmetic and medicinal purposes, often used to anoint and soften the skin. These fragrant balms held great cultural significance and were highly valued in societies across the ancient world. Egypt, in particular, became renowned for its mastery in crafting exquisite unguents, where the finest ingredients—precious oils, fragrant resins, and exotic flowers—were blended into potent, aromatic concoctions. The demand for these perfumed unguents was so high that they commanded an exorbitant price, making them accessible only to the wealthy and powerful.
Cleopatra, the last Pharaoh of Egypt, was famously known for her indulgence in these luxurious oils. It is said that Cleopatra spent four hundred denarii each day—equivalent to an astonishing $17,400 in modern terms—on unguents used exclusively to perfume and soften her hands and arms. Her devotion to fragrance was not merely a testament to her love for beauty but a deliberate part of her seductive power. Cleopatra understood the allure of scent, using it as an invisible weapon to enchant and captivate those around her. Her use of perfumed unguents became legendary, playing a role in her seduction of both Julius Caesar and Mark Antony. For Cleopatra, perfume was more than just a cosmetic—it was an instrument of power, romance, and allure, intricately woven into her identity as a ruler and seductress.
Among the renowned ancient ointments, Psagdi and Egyptian oil of lily were highly prized, celebrated even beyond Egypt's borders for their fragrance and quality. These unguents, steeped in prestige and cultural significance, were more than just perfumes—they were symbols of luxury, status, and refinement. Another highly coveted preparation was the Qam’ey (or Qemi) ointment, a rare and valuable substance. Such was its worth that two silver bowls filled with Qam’ey were gifted by a reigning Pharaoh to a deputy governor of Mery towards the end of the 20th Dynasty. This gift underscored the ointment’s esteemed status as a treasure, worthy of royal presentation.
People of rank in ancient Egypt often sourced their oils and perfumes from foreign lands, particularly along the southern coasts of the Red Sea, which supplied the coveted Qam’ey. This ointment played a central role in the lavish rituals of the New Kingdom, especially in the oiling of the head—a practice depicted frequently in Egyptian art and texts. The method of application was far from what one might expect today. A ball, about the size of a fist, was immersed in a bowl of the aromatic oil. The exact nature of this ball's consistency remains a mystery, but it was designed to absorb the oil. During banquets or ceremonies, a chief anointer, always present in wealthy households, would place the ball on the head of his master. As the feast progressed, the ball would slowly release its aromatic oil, allowing it to trickle down, perfuming the hair and body. This gradual release of fragrance was considered both indulgent and ceremonious, a sensory experience that signified both wealth and sophistication.
This elaborate use of perfumed ointments, including the Qam’ey, exemplified the luxurious and deeply ritualistic nature of personal grooming in ancient Egypt. These traditions, tied to both daily life and ceremonial occasions, elevated the role of fragrance in society, making it an integral part of Egyptian identity and cultural expression. The head cones, mentioned in various texts, likely followed similar practices, contributing to the overall sensory and symbolic experience of these ancient feasts and gatherings.
Two ancient Egyptian toilette cases, each filled with unguent vessels or perfume jars, kohl pots and applicators, and in the one on the right, a bronze mirror which when polished to a very high shine, had a wonderful reflecting property. These were objects of luxury for the wealthier citizens, the poorer classes also indulged in daily toilettes, but their vessels and the unguents or oils were of a lower quality.
In ancient Egypt, liquid unguents were derived from oils, serving not only as luxurious body treatments but as an essential part of daily life. In a hot, arid climate, where the relentless sun dried out the skin, oils and unguents were necessary to moisturize, protect, and perfume the body. For both men and women, these fragrant oils helped maintain hydration and provided a pleasant scent, masking the natural body odors that were inevitable in the sweltering heat. The significance of oils extended beyond mere physical comfort—these substances were intertwined with the fabric of Egyptian culture and ritual.
Oil held symbolic meaning, often associated with joy and celebration. On festival days, when the king’s procession passed, it was customary for people to pour “sweet oil” on their heads, anointing their freshly styled coiffures. This public ritual of oiling the body was a shared expression of happiness, marking significant occasions and honoring the presence of the king. The use of fragrant oils during festivals and ceremonies symbolized the connection between physical well-being and spiritual or communal joy, as the rich, aromatic oils not only protected the skin but also enhanced the sensory experience of the event.
Oils were also a practical necessity, crucial for survival against the harsh environmental conditions of the Nile Valley. The intense sun, dry winds, and high temperatures made body oil indispensable for protecting the skin from cracking and dehydration. While the oils served a functional purpose, when perfumed, they transformed into items of luxury and refinement, symbolizing both status and beauty. So vital were these oils that they became a common form of compensation for laborers. Workers were often paid in food and oil, reflecting the essential nature of these items in everyday Egyptian life. The supply of oil was as valuable as nourishment, and complaints from unpaid laborers often mentioned a lack of both food and oil, highlighting the central role these resources played in their daily existence.
For the Egyptian elite and soldiers, imported oils were highly prized, distinguishing them from the native fats that common laborers had to settle for. These imported oils, brought in from distant harbors, were symbols of wealth and status, coveted for their superior quality and often reserved for those in positions of power. The demand for oil from foreign lands exemplifies its importance not just as a basic necessity but as a luxury commodity that carried significant social and economic value in ancient Egyptian society. Whether as a protective balm, a fragrant adornment, or a symbol of joy, oils and unguents were deeply woven into the daily life and cultural practices of the Egyptians, reflecting their reverence for both beauty and survival in their environment.
Most of their unguents used a base of either rendered animal fats, or vegetable oils such as moringa (a type of tree native to Africa and Asia), sesame, olive oil or benben oil. The unguent was made up of heated fat and fragranced essences, solidified after cooling, and was shaped into balls or cones.
Oils and unguents also formed the base of much of the ancient Egyptian's idea of medicine, along with magic, amulets, invocations, etc. The Egyptian drugs included wine, beer, yeast, honey, turpentine, myrrh, opium, wormwood, aloes, vinegar, cumin, fennel, anise, peppermint, cassia, caraway, coriander, linseed, juniper berries, henbane and mandrake. Any number of these could be macerated in oils and taken internally or rubbed over the afflicted area. Many herbs were used as medicines under symbolic names; for instance, the ivy was called the "plant of Osiris," verbena was called "tears of Isis," saffron was called the "blood of Thoth," and squill was known as the "eye of Typhon."
Other favorite perfumes were Mendesium, which was composed of oil of ben, myrrh, and canella; Metopium, which was perfumed with almonds, and contained honey, wine, resin, myrrh, and calamus; Aegyptium, which was strongly impregnated with cinnamon and used chiefly for the hands and feet; and Cyprinum, of a green tint, which was extracted from henna flowers.
Sacred Mummification Oils:
Various oils and unguents were also used during the practice of mummification. Already in 3500 BCE, at Abydos in Upper Egypt, jars of scented oils and unguents appear in a predynastic tomb. In funerary work, a ceremonial assortment known as the "Seven Sacred Oils" was applied to the mummy during the process of embalming. The exact compositions are not known, but it is certain that they generally made use of myrrh, aloes and other strong and astringent herbs and spices to prevent putrefaction and help to cover up the smell of decay. “Some of the perfume vases were made of turquoise that were used in the mysteries of Osiris at Dendera, and vases of fragrant oils and perfumes were buried with the mummy for his use in the other world. Previous to burial, the body was anointed, perfumed, and crowned with flowers. The ceremony was concluded with a prayer, in which the ‘perfume of Horus" was desired to place itself on the dead man, so that he might receive virtue from the god.”
In 2023, a team of scientists successfully recreated an ancient oil formula that was used for mummification. An analysis was conducted of balm residues scraped from the interiors of 18th dynasty canopic jars belonging to a noblewoman named Senetnay. These funerary jars, about 3,500 years old, once held the ancient woman's mummified organs and were excavated from KV42, a tomb cache, in the 1920s by the archaeologist Howard Carter. You may recognize his name from his more infamous find, King Tutankhamen's fabulous tomb full of riches.
Senetnay was a woman of high status at the time due to her close relationship with the royal family, she was the wife of the mayor of Thebes, Sennefer, who just happened to be a cousin of the Pharaoh. She participated as the wet nurse of Amenhotep II, the son and heir of Pharaoh Thutmose III. Since the royal family did not nurse their own babies, the wet nurse was hired to perform this vital function. The wet nurse of a pharaoh's child might be the wife of a general or some other high official, and she was treated with great honor. The wet nurse's primary job was to breastfeed the future pharaoh while he was an infant and was usually kept on to act in similar capacity to a nanny. Subsequently, the royal child wound up becoming very attached to the nurse/nanny and continued to provide well for her into old age. The ancient Egyptian title for this woman would have been "Great Royal Nurse", or "Chief Nurse of the Two Lands", Senetnay's titles were "the one who nurtured body of god (the pharaoh)" and "Ornament of the King”.
She must have been a beloved figure throughout her life as she was rewarded in death with a complex and expensive mummification ritual which included the ever present canopic jars. These four jars of carved limestone were topped with human headed lids and contained her internal organs, which were carefully embalmed and wrapped in linen just as her body was. One of the jars once held her lungs, which was represented by inscriptions on the jars referring to the goddess Nephthys, sister of Isis and Osiris, while another jar once held her liver. Unfortunately, the organs have been lost to eternity and the jars stand empty of their original precious contents. However, residues of the balms are partially preserved and appear as thin coatings on the interior walls, bases and even penetrated into the porous limestone.
The analysis revealed the ancient secrets which had been lost for thousands of years. Modern archaeologists and scholars generally had to rely on ancient texts which gave scanty information. The analyzed results showed that the costly balms were primarily composed of beeswax, various plant oils and gums, fats, bitumen, resins of the Pinaceae family (pine, larch or cedar), a balsamic substance, and Pistacia tree resin known as dammar. At the time of Senetnay's death, these would have been expensive to procure as well as utilize for the mummification process, reflecting her elite burial status and place of privilege in the Valley of the Kings. The scientists said that their analysis showed that "These are the richest, most complex balms yet identified for this early time period. They highlight both the exceptional status of Senetnay and the myriad trade connections of the Egyptians in the second millennium BCE."
An interesting take is that the jar that held the lungs contained a different composition that the jar that held the liver. It is supposed that each organ was assigned its own mummification oil formula. Organ specific formulas have some support due to the discoveries found in an ancient mummification workshop at Saqqara, dating to around 31 BCE. In the workshop were found vessels in which the special mummification oils were being prepared for later application to the liver and stomach. The chemical analysis of Senetnay's canopic jars seem to bolster up the findings.
These analyses were also also important in confirming that the ancient Egyptian trading routes were well established as some of the ingredients were not native to Egypt. The pine, at the time, was not grown in Egypt, and it is purported to have been exported from the Alps, Pyrenees, Central Europe or western Mediterranean mountainous regions. Pine and other coniferous species including cedar and larch could also have been exported from Lebanon, Cilicia and Syria. Pistacia was generally found in the Mediterranean coastal region from Spain to the Levant. Dammar resin was found in trees that grow exclusively in southeast Asian tropical forests. It is interesting to note that in addition to being found in Senetnay's canopic jar, dammar resin was also found in the Saqqara workshop.
Senetney's mummification oil was recreated by the team of scientists and will be part of a special exhibit on display at Denmark's Moesgaard Museum during autumn 2023. The scientists dubbed the aromatic substance as "the scent of eternity."
Archaeologist Howard Carter, stated that the mummy of Tutankhamen was eventually destroyed by the "consecration unguents that had been poured over his gold coffin and his body. The unguents were of the nature of fatty matter, resin and possibly wood-pitch, originally in a liquid or semi-liquid condition. In the course of time, the decomposition of these unguents acted destructively upon the contents. The consolidated residue of the unguents also formed a hard black pitch-like mass, which firmly stuck both the mummy and its mask to the bottom of the coffin; and no amount of legitimate force could move them." He goes on to say that "In all probability these once liquid unguents were merely of pious significance, and had been applied for a sacred purpose either before or during the burial rites, to consecrate or purify the dead king, or to help him towards initiation on his journey through the mysteries of the shadowy Underworld."
Ancient Egyptian Love Oils:
Unguents were often associated with eroticism and perhaps considered aphrodisiacs. In addition to being employed as massage oils, they may have also been used for lubrication or contraceptive agents during lovemaking. The ancient Egyptians used aromatic ointments to enhance their sex appeal. The pleasant fragrance of certain ointments attracted the attention of the opposite sex. There are numerous references to "daubing" or "smearing" oil or ointment on the skin and hair. In many cases, the oil was lavishly applied.
In the so-called erotic papyrus of Turin, the adventures of an inexperienced man in a brothel are described in such great detail that the work has remained unpublished because scholars in the past regarded it as obscene. Today there are numerous images of the papyrus' surviving fragments published online and we can have somewhat of an understanding about the ancient Egyptian sexuality. In the scene below, a prostitute applies lipstick while holding an brush like applicator in her hand and a kohl or lipstick tube and mirror in the other. She appears to be sitting on something unusual. To date, it seems that no one has been able to figure out exactly what it is or what the image is actually portraying. Some have posited it was some sort of conical topped stool, but after seeing many objects portrayed in tomb paintings and papyrus illustrations, I have come to the realization that the woman is not sitting on the item in question and it is definitely not an item of furniture. The woman is either sitting down or laying back with her knees up and legs spread. The pointed object actually represents a conical lump of perfumed unguent heaped onto a footed bowl which was a customary receptacle for ointment. This bowl is being held in front her her. The man next to her, who represents her newest customer is rubbing the unguent on her buttocks, nether regions and inner thighs with one hand and the other is holding the bowl. She is making herself presentable by touching up her makeup for this newest client. I believe that a rather large jar of unguent would have been present in the brothel as it would have been used quite often.
The oil might be a form of primitive contraception. In the fourth century BCE, Aristotle noted that women of his time who did not wish to conceive would "anoint that part of the womb on which the seed falls with oil of cedar, ointment of lead or frankincense commingled with olive oil." The inclusion of lead was poisonous, but the ancients were unaware of this, but the application of oil and its resulting stickiness would help to prevent the motility of sperm.
Soranus of Ephesus, in the first century CE, mentioned the use of vaginal plugs saturated with a variety of substances. "Conception is prevented by smearing the orifice of the uterus all over with old olive oil, honey, cedar resin or the juice of the balsam tree, alone or together with white lead; or with an ointment containing myrtle oil and white lead; or before the act with moist alum [a mineral salt], or with gum resin together with wine."
The application of unguent to the thighs was an Egyptian practice. Athenaeus gave us information that the Sybarites of Athens anointed each pat of their body with a different ointment, Egyptian, a bitter almond scented unguent used for feet and thighs, Phoenician, a balsam scented unguent for cheeks and breasts, Sisymbrion, a water mint scented unguent for the arms, Amaracon, a marjoram scented unguent for hair and eyebrows and Serpyllos, a thyme scented unguent for the chin and neck. Cleopatra VII Thea Philopator was said to have used a mixture of rose and violet on her hands, and a blend of hyacinth, cinnamon and orange oils for her feet.
Another image is a man and woman in a chariot. As he is entering her from behind, he is grabbing her hair with one hand and is holding a long necked oil jar in the other hand. He is not forcefully pulling her hair to cause pain, rather, I believe he is applying the oil to her hair. The wig had erotic associations – one young man is recorded as saying to his lover, "Put on your wig and let's go to bed!"
A faience bowl united most of the erotic symbols in its decoration: a beautiful lute player squatting on a cushion while a monkey playfully toys with her hip girdle. She has an image of Bes, a symbol of her profession as well as sexuality and drunkenness, tattooed on her thigh and wears an unguent cone and a lotus flower on her heavy wig. More flowers dangle from her elbows. The lute is decorated with a duck's head. This bowl may have been used for food or holding unguents.
The cosmetic jars they used are decorated with erotic symbols as, for example, an unguent spoon shaped like the hieroglyph for life, the handle of which is adorned with a girl playing the lute while sailing along in a papyrus thicket. Both the lute and the boat are decorated with duck's heads. Another unguent spoon was shaped like a swimming girl holding a duck, the hollow body of which contained the unguent. The unguent spoons below show various swimming girl motifs.
On the back of Tutankhamen's golden throne is an intimate image of his wife Ankhesenamun, tenderly anointing her seated husband from a chalice in her hand. This is quite unique, but intimate family scenes were typical of the Amarna period. To date, I have not found this type of image on any other Pharaoh's funerary objects.
As unguents were massaged into the skin, the scented grease ended up transferred onto clothing. A lovesick man decries in a papyrus saying, "I wish I were her laundryman, just for a single month. Then I would flourish by donning [her garment] and be close to her body..I would wash away the unguent from her clothes and wipe my body with her dress...I wish I were the water that washes your body. I wish I were the unguent, O woman, that I could anoint you."
A large ostracon (a limestone flake, usually used as notepads) records a love poem: "O my god, my lotus flower!..It is lovely to go out and...I love to go and bathe before you. I allow you to see my beauty in a dress of the finest linen, drenched with fragrant unguent. I go down into the water to be with you and come up to you again with a red fish, looking splendid on my fingers. I place it before you...Come! Look at me!"
Another heartsick man brags about his lover: "If I embrace her and her arms are opened, it is for me as if I were one that is from the incense land Punt, who is immersed in the scent of qemi unguent. If I kiss her and her lips are open, I am happy (even) without beer, I say to thee: Put the finest linen between her limbs, make not her bed with royal linen and beware of white linen. Adorn (her bed with...) and sprinkle it with tishepes-oil.""
In ancient Egypt, women used cinnamon oil imported from Nepal, combined with honey, myrrh and almonds to make a perfume for the feet and legs.
Bast (also known as Bastet), was the Egyptian goddess of sexuality and fertility, known as “She of the Ointment jar” and symbolized by the famous “alabaster jar."
Unguent Containers:
Oils and unguents were so valuable they were usually transported and stored in small and often distinctive containers. Most of those used for unguents are of a short, squatty shape while others were vase shaped with with open mouths. The containers used for oils were cylindrical vases or bottles with tall narrow necks. The unguent was scooped using elaborate spoons or spatulas by the wealthy, while the poorer classes typically used their fingers. The myriads of unguent containers that have been found in the tombs show that they believed that the dead were as much in need of unguents as the living.
Oils were also presented as offerings to the deities and statues were anointed with aromatic scents. Perfumed oils and unguents were offered to the gods in large quantities and a thousand boxes of ointment are mentioned in one instance alone.
The most precious unguents often formed part of a large donation and were always included in the complete set of offerings to the shrines of the gods. They were kept in beautiful containers of alabaster or vases of onyx or diorite, fitted with stoppers or lids to preserve the contents from deteriorating. According to recent accounts, in some of the magnificent and exquisitely carved alabaster unguent containers discovered in the tomb of Tutankhamen, which is said to date about 1350 BCE, the fragrance of the perfume still lingered after a period of over three thousand years.
Pliny suggests that "Unguents keep best in alabaster boxes, scents when mixed with oil...Sunshine is detrimental to them; and the unguents improve with age. Therefore they are stored in the shade, in vessels made of lead. When being tested they are put on the back of the hand, to avoid their being damaged by the warmth of the fleshy part."
As we understand from the passage, alabaster was the preferred material for storage, followed closely by cold lead or stone.
Ancient Egyptian perfume bottles. Left: A faience vessel in the shape of a monkey. This dates to the New Kingdom, circa 1550–1295 BCE | Right: A travertine perfume vessel with the figure of a princess inlaid. The vessel dates to the New Kingdom, Amarna Period, circa 1353–1336 BCE (Photos: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Public domain)
The Unguent Jars of Tutankhamen:
The three elaborate alabaster containers below were found in Tutankhamen's tomb in the Valley of the Kings. Tutankhamen was buried with thirty four alabaster (calcite) vessels and one of serpentine.
Ten alabaster jars (not including the three ornate and four highly elaborate jars above) of similar kind were found lying on the floor of the Antechamber, emptied and abandoned. With rare exception, the lids and stoppers of all these vessels had been forcibly removed, thrown aside and their contents poured put and stolen, leaving only a trace of residue in each vessel. Fingerprints of the robber's hands that scooped out the unguent are found on the inner walls of some of the vessels that contained viscous substance. Many of the containers were older than the burial of the kind. Some of them have their original inscriptions carefully erased; others actually bear ancestral names that go as far back as Thutmosis III, and some of them show traces of long use, old breakages, and repairs; in fact, they appear to have contained family oils from famous presses, fats and unguents of matured kind, dating back as far as some eight-five years before the birth of Tutankhamen.
In the photo above, Ankhesenamun applies perfumed unguent to Tut's shoulder. The scene is on the back of Tut's golden throne.
Head Cones:
The unguent cone is also linked to a verbal sexual pun in which the word for odor (seti) was written with the same letters as the word “to shoot" or "ejaculate." The play on words in the depiction of servant girls pouring drinks for the guests may have reminded the artists of a sexual act, as both "pouring" and "ejaculating" were expressed by a similar sounding word, "seti." This word also meant "to shoot" and scenes of hunting in the marshes found on tomb walls may also have an underlying erotic significance.
In addition to the floral headbands, the guests were always seen wearing broad floral collars. These were made up of flower petals, leaves and seeds sewn against papyrus or linen backings in a wreath shape. they were affixed with strings tied behind the neck.
Myronides, tells us that at banquets, the guests used to anoint their heads so that the wine should not affect them; for when the "head is dry, the fumes ascend." The use of the floral wreaths or collars were also thought to insure the wearer against intoxication by keeping the head cool, and to prevent headaches. In earlier centuries, ivy wreaths were used for this purpose, but later ones were made of sweet smelling flowers such as roses, lilies, wallflowers or stocks, and also frequently sprinkled with perfumed unguents by attendants.
This next register shows another servant girl holding a fillet and a shallow bowl heaped with unguent. It is in this moment that I believe the servant girl goes around to each guest and replenishing lumps of unguent atop each person's head as the previous unguent has started melting away. The servant boy is holding onto the male guest's forearm from whose hand holds the stem of a fragrant lotus. I suppose he is ready to adorn the guest's head with the fillet the servant girl is handing to him.
In the scene below, unfortunately damaged, it shows two women, most likely not serving girls as they are dressed in finery usually reserved for wealthy citizens, one woman is holding up a fillet, presumably to place on someone else's head. I am unsure what the other lady is holding, it appears to be a shallow bowl, perhaps unguent is inside.
The scene below shows a servant girl, holding a dish containing a unguent, applies a lump of unguent to the head of a female guest.
The shape of the cones varies over the 18th and 19th Dynasties, which constitutes an aid for dating the works. From the 20th Dynasty onwards, the depiction of the cones becomes schematic. Notice that some cones have wavy outlines or have dripped down ending in dots - this is the cone actively melting in the heat. I love how the ancient artists captured something from real life and enshrined it forever. The owners of the tombs would be happy to know that their festal cones would continue to melt onto them for eternity.
The tomb painting below shows a large offering table heaped with fruits, bread, vegetables and meats. Above the offering table is a separate table holding four jars of oil, topped by lotus blossoms and buds. Looks like the man is pouring oil over the lettuce atop the offering table.
In the tomb paintings below, the women are wearing lotus blossom fillets around their wigs and the perfume cone is also wrapped with its own miniature fillet. Exactly how the cones were supported or attached on the head is unknown. Some images show a lotus with its stem penetrating through the base of the cone and exiting out over the back of the head. The lotus blossom or bud, droopingly rests overtop the forehead, in some images, two lotuses are found. In the painting below, two women have the lotus fillet around the outside of their wig, while the two on the right have the lotus fillet under their wig. The women on the right might only have part of their elaborate wig such as the bangs hanging over the fillet. The forward facing image of the women is extremely rare in Ancient Egyptian art, as people were always portrayed in the profile. Wearing scented unguent cones on their heads, the women, as the text above describes, are singing joyfully about the abundant festivity around them: "meat, fowl, fish, all kinds of sweet herbs, ointment of moringa oil, unguent of myrrh!" At least we know what they are eating and wearing!
In a few depictions, where several seated men and women are being attended by servant girls, it can be seen that one or two of the women wear no headband. Lotus fillets and lotus blossoms dangle from the hands of the girls, and it may be supposed that the girls are in the process of distributing the flowers and arranging the fillets on the guest's heads. Other servant girls can be seen bearing unused cones in their hands as they attend to the women.
The image below portrays a servant girl holding a shallow bowl heaped with fillets and handing the next one to the servant boy who is already holding one open. The servants may be replenishing the now wilted and barely scented fillets with new fragrant ones made with fresh blossoms.
This next register shows a servant girl holding out a fillet to another servant girl who is either arranging the hair of a guest or fixing a funerary collar around her next. Notice how low their perfume cones have melted by now. I think it is very clever that the artist who painted this scene has opted to show how the female guest's hands have gotten her dress covering her knees stained with either unguent or food by resting her hand there.
The first known depiction of the perfume cones that has been found dates from the reign of Queen Hatshepsut, but these were worn only in banqueting or funerary scenes. From then on, they are often seen worn during worship or funerary scenes. From the Third Intermediate Period, their depiction is limited only to scene of worship. Whether this is an accurate portrayal of their restricted holy usage, or whether it wasn't portrayed in the images but still performed in daily life is unknown.
In the banquet scene below, a female guest is offering another guest a yellow mandrake fruit, which the ancient Egyptians associated with love and sexuality. The fruit has a pleasing smell when ripe, while the mandrake plant itself has hallucinogenic and aphrodisiac effects, but it is toxic. Several lotus flowers are also depicted. Each fillet features a lotus bud penetrating a head cone, and two guests hold a lotus flower; one is open and another is closed. The lotus flower, which also has a pleasing scent, and the Nymphaea species of lotus has narcotic properties and may have been used no only for its fragrance, but also to achieve an altered state during festivities. In other paintings, there are depictions of of people dipping their lotus blossoms into their wine chalices.
Another tomb image shows the mandrake fruit being offered, this time it is placed directly in front of the nose. The women wear lotus flower fillets and head cones. The head cone to the right appears to have melted considerably more than the ones to the left. The white of the cones depict the solidified unguent, while the orange color at the top, streaking downwards depicts the unguent in the act of melting. We can infer from the image that the cone on the right is nearly melted completely, as its high dome has decreased and very little of the solidified white unguent is present.
In the register below from Nakht's tomb, we can see a series of male guests holding a lotus flower. To the right of the guests, there is a few bowls and jars on stands. The bowl on the left looks to be folded fillets topped by lotus buds complete with stems. The jar to the right of it appears to be a large lump of unguent topped by a single lotus blossom. The bowl to the right of it is filled with unguent and is topped by several lotus blossoms. The jar on the right is most likely wine, but could also be oil.
Again we see a series of unguents at a funerary banquet. The bowl and two jars are set into stands. The bowl on the left is a huge lump of unguent, the jar in the center is also a lump of unguent and the jar to the right also appears to be unguent. All containers are topped by bouquets of lotus blossoms.
The head cones were depicted on the heads of men and women from the 18th Dynasty onwards. They are seen initially in tomb scenes, for example, the 18th Dynasty tomb of Amenemhat at Deir el-Medina. The frequency of depictions of the cone increases throughout the New Kingdom and the mediums they are represented on extends to include coffins, mortuary papyri and three dimensional female figurines. The cone continues to be depicted until the Ptolemaic period; a cone is illustrated on the head of Petosiris and his wife who lived under Persian rule. The nature and significance of the head cone representation has been debated over the years, as they were not found as archaeological evidence until 2019. Two head cones, made of wax, were discovered on the skulls of two individuals buried about 3,300 years ago excavated at the ancient cemetery of Amarna. In both cases, the cones appear cream colored; spectroscopic analysis indicated that the cones were likely made of beeswax. These may have been "dummy" cones, made up of solidified beeswax rather than unguent to survive the trip into the Netherworld.
Previous excavations revealed cones of fat on the skulls of most internments in Amarna's South Tombs Cemetery. This evidence took the form of either loose fragments of cones or the discoloration of hair or bones suggesting the melting of the cones. Scholars still debate whether the cones were used in real life or were just funerary equipment. I happen to believe they were actually used in real life. The ancient Egyptians knew the benefits of unguents and the exquisite pleasure of scent.
In the 1925 book The Mummy: A Handbook of Egyptian Funerary Archaeology by Sir Ernest Alfred Wallis Budge, the author says that "many tribes in the Eastern Sudan at the present day place small receptacles containing grease on their heads, and let it melt and run over their shoulders and bodies, in much the same way tas the Egyptians did. In 1887, at Wadi Halfah, when large tins of soft soap were served out for the use of one of the "Black" battalions, the soldiers went down to the river to bathe and, having well-lathered themselves, each put a lump of soap on the top of his head, and then sat down in the shallow water in the sun and sang songs. What the unguents were perfumed with is not known, but it is probable that any and every strong smelling vegetable oil or essence known to the Egyptians was used by them."
How were the perfumes made and what were they made of?
The ancient Egyptians did not record the exact formulas for their fragrances, but lucky for us, the writings of the classical authors Dioscorides, Pliny and Theophrastus survive to tell their secrets. Some perfume materials are named in the earliest offering lists in the pyramid texts, as well as in tomb and coffin inscriptions and funeral papyri of much later periods. However, it is not always possible to know what ingredient is meant by some ancient word. Still, it is possible to obtain a general idea of ingredients, oils, fats and perfumes used.
Fragrances were prepared with the greatest skill in Egypt and historians know it was a major center for perfume manufacture, but to date, no workshops have been found by archaeologists. All we have to go on are representations of how Egyptians made perfumes on walls of tombs and in special temple chambers that housed perfumes and unguents.
While the ancient Egyptians used many local and imported plants and materials to produce their perfumes and unguents, it has proved difficult to identify all the specific ingredients, some ingredients may even be extinct today. We know that the Egyptians had an extensive knowledge of the properties of aromatic gums and resinous substances over three thousand years ago, and employed them, not only for making their perfumes, but also in embalming their dead. Myrrh, cinnamon, galbanum, and many similar substances are mentioned in the Papyrus Ebers, which was written about 2000 b.c., and a recipe is also given for making pastilles for perfuming the breath.
Perfumes were made in laboratories within temples. At Edfu, in the Temple of Horus, begun by Ptolemy III in 237 BCE, numerous inscriptions on the walls of the perfume laboratories, a room kept in almost total darkness, clearly show how perfumes and ritual oils were made. The most subtle scents created there took up to six months to mature.
One of the special preparation rooms was found in Denderah. This was the domain of priests, who also doubled as the local physician at the time. Discovered on the walls of these preparation rooms were actual formulation notes carved into the stone. These formulations would have literally been a secret hidden in plain sight, as only the priests and scribes knew how to read the hieroglyphic writing.
Recipes for the preparation of perfumes used in the temples are inscribed in stone at Edfu, and a poem has been discovered incised on one of the walls of Karnak, in which Rameses II exhorts the god Ammon to give him victory in battle, with the words: “I have enriched thy domain, and I have sacrificed thirty thousand oxen to thee, with all the sweet-smelling herbs and the finest perfumes.”
Residues and remains found during archaeological excavations have provided convincing evidence as to what ingredients were used at that time in the production of perfumes and oils. Among the many beautiful containers discovered at Luxor was one of great interest, which, on being opened, was found to contain some of the original perfumed unguent that it had held when the tomb was sealed thousands of years ago. The vase or jar was of calcite, which had become naturally sealed, the changes in temperature and moisture caused certain salts to crystallize around the lid and formed a hard protective encrustation.
The contents are described as a rather a sticky substance presenting the appearance of a heterogeneous mixture, consisting of yellow nodules, together with a chocolate-colored body.” It melted partially at the heat of the hand, emitting a faint yet distinctive odor which at first suggested coconut, but afterwards was thought to resemble the flowers of the broom or as being rather valerianaceous in character. Although it had a fatty smell, it was not that associated with advanced rancidity.
The result of an analysis of the substance was given by Chapman and Plenderleith, in a paper communicated to the British Association at the meeting in Oxford in 1926. They stated that “ a careful microscopical examination failed to reveal any traces of vegetable fiber or other organized structures, and that the chemical evidence supported the view that the fat was of animal character. It also seemed to exclude the presence of coconut or palm-kernel oils.
Having regard to all the results, it appeared probable that the cosmetic consisted of about 90 percent, of a neutral animal fat with about 10 percent, of some resin or balsam, and that the smell of the material was probably due to odorous substances formed in process of time from the resins or balsams employed.”
It is quite likely that the faint perfume described as being of “a valerianaceous character” is due to
Indian nard or spikenard that was frequently employed by the Egyptians in making their unguents, as it is now known to have been obtained from a species of valerian and had a very powerful and persistent odor. There seems little doubt that the preservation of the substance is due to the use of olibanum or other gum-resins having antiseptic properties that were known and used by the Egyptians at that period. In any case, this jar contains the most ancient unguent at present known which has retained its perfume for over three thousand years.
But how were they made, exactly?
The ancient Egyptians did not practice the art of distillation as it was not invented until the 11th century by the Arabs, instead, they used three primitive, but common techniques: enfleurage, maceration, and pressing. They used the essences and oils of fruits, spices, herbs, barks, roots, seeds, leaves, grasses, and flower petals to create perfumes.
Enfleurage involves steeping flowers in fat to make scented pomades and creams. An excellent example of a pomade was the aforementioned aromatic unguent cone.
Maceration was the method for removing the essential oils found in certain types of flowers, fruits, herbs and plants. This process happens by soaking mashed plant materials in warm fats, stirring and removing the oil. The mixture was poured through a sieve and cooled. Once cooled, it could be formed into various shapes, or if left in its liquid state, poured into containers or cosmetic spoons.
Another method of maceration was to macerate the raw materials in water, cover the pot with a cloth saturated with fat, place the pot on a fire, and let the scent evaporate into the cloth. The resulting unguent could then be scraped off the cloth and stored.
In the extraction method called enfleurage, the Egyptians placed petals between layers of animal fat, which become saturated with flower oils.
Another common method of extraction used in Egypt was pressing as seen on tomb walls. This technique was already being used to manufacture oils and wine. The raw materials are placed inside of a bag, sticks are tied to each end of the bag and twisted in opposite directions until the essences are expressed from the contents. This is probably the most simplest and cost effective way the ancients obtained essences.
Pliny lists the basic elements used in the manufacture of aromatic unguents. The first was a liquid, almost always an oil, to which was added the scent or odor (spices), a dye to give color and a resin or gun to fix the scent to the liquid. His account is as follows: "the recipe for making unguents contains two ingredients, the juice and the solid part (succus and sorpus), the former of which usually consists of various sorts of oils and the latter of scented substances, the oils being called "astringents" (stymmata) and the scents "sweetenings" (hedysmata)." Together with these there is a third factor that many people neglect, that of color, for the sake of which usually dragon's blood plant or alkanet. A sprinkle of salt served to preserve the properties of the oil, but to scents containing an admixture of alkanet salt is not added. Resin or gum are added to retain the scent in the solid part as it evaporates and disappears very quickly if these are not added....What are called sprinkling powders (diapas'mata) are made of dried scents, the dregs of unguents being termed magma. Among all scents employed the one added last is the most powerful."
Theophrastus describes the raw materials from which the perfumes are prepared: "Perfumes are compounded from various parts of the plants: flowers, leaves, twigs, root, wood, fruit and gum; and in most cases the perfume is made from the mixture of several parts. Rose and gilliflower perfumes are made from the flowers; so also is the perfume called Susinon made from lilies; also the perfume from bergamot, mint and thyme, named Kyrpos; and the saffron perfume. The crocus that produces this is best from Aegina and Cilicia. Instances of those made from the leaves are the perfumed culled from myrtle and dropwort. This grows in Cyprus on the hills and is very fragrant; that which grows in Hellas yields no perfume being scentless. From roots are made the perfumes name from iris, spikenard and sweet marjoram, and ingredient in which is koston; for it is the root to which this perfume is applied. The Eretrian unguent is made from the root of kyperion, which is obtained from Cyclades as well as from Enboea. From wood is made what is called "palm perfume"; for they put in what is called the "spathe," having first dried it. From fruits are made the quince perfume, the myrtle and the bay. The Egyptian is made from several ingredients including cinnamon and myrrh."
Pliny also describes the details on the making of perfume powders and compound perfumes:"As to the mixing of solid substances to make powders and compound perfumes we do not find it here necessary to mix certain specified ingredients; the more numerous and the more various the perfumes are mixed the more distinguished and the more grateful the scent will be....again in perfumes of this class the aim and object is not to make the mixture smell of some one particular thing, but to produce a general scent derived from them all. This is why everyday they open the vessel and remove each time that perfume whose scent is overpowering the other, adding at the same time smaller quantities of the less powerful scents, while some perfumes are added. When they make compound perfumes, they moisten spices with fragrant wine; and this certainly seems to be useful to produce a fragrance seeing that perfumers use it also. These compound perfumes last a long time. They are used to impart a pleasant odor to clothes, while the powders are used for bedding, so that they may come in contact with the skin; for this kind of preparation gets a better hold and is more lasting so that men use it this instead of scenting their bodies directly. Some, before putting the powder in the bedding, soak it with fragrant wine, so that it may acquire its scent and some powders they moisten by mixing them with mead and wine or again simply with mead..."
Theophrastus discusses the spices used in making perfumes: "Almost all spices and sweet scents except flowers are dry, hot, astringent and mordant. Some also possess a certain bitterness, as we have said above, such as iris, myrrh, frankincense and perfumes in general...All spices are given their astringent quality by exposure to fire, but some of them assume their special odors even when cold and not exposed to fire; and it also appears that, just as with vegetable dyes some are applied hot and some cold, so it is with odors. But in all cases, the cooking, whether to produce the astringent quality or to impart the odor proper, is done in vessels standing in water and not in actual contact with the fire; the reason being that the heating must be gentle, and there would be considerable waste if these were in actual contact with the flames; and further the perfume would smell of burning. However there is less waste if the perfume obtains its proper odor by exposure to fire than when it does so in a cold state, since those perfumes which are subjected to fire are first steeped in either fragrant wine or in water; for they absorb less while those which are treated in cold state being dry, absorb more.."
Theophrastus on the properties on various spices we learn that "It is thought that not only the smells of the perfumes contribute to a pleasant taste (of the wine) but also the qualities of pungency and heat which are found in some of them...Now some spices when fresh have at first heavy and pungent qualities but in the course of time become sweet till they have reached their prime and then they loose their properties again. Some perfumes are made up colorless, some are given a color. The dye used for coloring red perfumes is alkanet; the sweet marjoram perfume is dyed with the substance called khroma which is a root imported from Syria."
Theophrastus said that "they use spices in the making of all perfumes; some to thicken the oil (that is render it less volatile), some in order to impart their odor. For in all cases they thicken the oil to some extent to make it take the odor better, just as they treat wool for dyeing (that is he compares the action of the spice with that of a mordant.} The less powerful spices are used for the thickening and then at a later stage they put in the one whose odor they wish to secure. For that which is put in last always dominates."
Theophrastus states that much depends on the season of collection, the time and the "aging" process. "All those made from flowers have little vigor, they are usually at their best after two months and deteriorate quickly after. Perfumes are ruined by a hot season or place or by being put in the sun. That is why perfumers seek upper rooms which do not face the sun but which are shaded as much as possible...This is why men put them into vessels of lead and try to secure phials of alabaster, a stone which has the required effect; for lead is cold and of close texture and stone has that same character, that being the best for keeping perfumes, which has it in the highest degree."
Alexandria, the center for Egyptian perfume manufacture:
Important trading centers developed at Alexandria and Mendes in Egypt and in Palestine. From the first decades of the Roman Empire, Egypt's perfume industry also faced competition because of excellent flower crops in Capua, Neapolis, and Paestum in Italy. Alexandria was a major trade center not only because of its location on the Mediterranean coast, but also because it was linked by canals to the Nile, which facilitated cheap and reliable transport for Egypt's abundant resources such as linen and grain. Since Alexandria was an important hub in the trading world, many of the ingredients used in the perfumes came through the harbor from foreign vessels. The perfumes were then compounded in various perfume workshops in the city. It is likely that most of the jars of perfume manufactured in the vicinity of Alexandria were destined for export.
Together with the local products and imports from Palestine, Syria and Asia Minor they were used for the blending and compounding of perfumes and unguents. This large scale manufacture is described of Pliny: "At Alexandria where frankincense is worked up for sale, good heavens!, no vigilance is sufficient to safeguard the factories (offincae). A seal is put upon the workmen's aprons, they have to wear a mask of net with a close mesh on their heads, and before they are allowed to leave their premises they have to take off all their clothes; so much less honesty is displayed with regard to the produce with them as to the forests with the growers (where no such vigilance is kept)."
The majority of the perfume compounding and bottling was concentrated in the Canopus district of Alexandria. Many fancy little bottle and jars such as lekythoi, bombyli, alabastra, aryballoi gave rise to a flourishing industry of stone and glass containers in Alexandria and other centers for the manufacture of perfumes. Perfume was not only an expensive luxury but a valuable export. Egypt eventually became renowned throughout the ancient world for its perfumes.
The Phoenician merchants exported Egyptian unguents, scented oils, creams, and aromatic wines all over the Mediterranean world and the Arabic peninsula, thereby enhancing the fame and wealth of Egypt, causing the Alexandrian merchants to reap a huge profit. There were several local centers for the manufacture of unguents and perfumes like Corinth, Capua, Chaeroneia, Antiochia and Laodicea but none could compete with Alexandria. Campania would have been the best competitor to Alexandria.
In Oxyrhynchus, Egypt, there was a "street of the ointment makers" and during the late third century AD, a tax of 60 drachmae per month was paid by an "aromatopyles" (dealer in perfumes) and a "myropyles" (dealer in unguents) of Arsinoe.
Where did the ingredients originate?
Scented oils were in use from very early on in Egypt. As early as 2000 BCE fragrant resins and unguents were transported on merchant ships from other countries in the Mediterranean, India and other distant places.
Herodotus gives an account: "Arabia is the last of inhabited land and it is the only country which produced frankincense, myrrh, cassia, cinnamon and labdanum. The Arabians do not get any of these, except the myrrh, with trouble. The frankincense they produce by means of the gum storax, which the Greeks obtain from the Phoenicians; this they burn and thereby obtain the spice." Theophrastus states that frankincense is produced in the country of the Sabians occupying the southern shores of Arabia. They sold it to the Arabs, through whose hands it passed to the Phoenicians, who acted as distributors to the temples throughout their possessions, as well as to the countries with which they traded.
Pliny says that “the Sabians alone knew the tree which produced frankincense, and of these only three thousand families, by virtue of hereditary succession. The trees were regarded as sacred, and while pruning them or gathering the gum, men must be kept from pollution.”
A far-reaching civilizing influence emanated also from Babylonia to the neighboring countries where the caravan routes from India, Arabia, and Syria met. The trade in aromatic gums and fragrant oils with Egypt must have begun at a very early period, as a Babylonian clay tablet, still extant, records an order for “oil of cedar, myrrh, and cypress to be obtained from abroad.”
These early records prove the great antiquity of aromatic perfumes, and show how extensively they were used in past ages. It is evident that they were regarded of the greatest value and equaled that of gold and silver.
The rose attar was imported from Persia and Asia Minor. Calamus, also known as sweet flag was imported from northern Arabia and Syria. Styrax was also imported from Syria. Ships sailing up the Red Sea brought precious opoponax from Yemen. Hammoniac gum was a type of elate-gum or spathe from the Oases of Ammon in Egypt.
Traders from India brought forth the aromatic gum resin myrrh, (from the Balsamodendron myrrha). Myrrh is probably the earliest aromatic gum of which we have record. It is mentioned in several Egyptian papyri of great antiquity. In a papyrus written about 2,000 BCE, in the Hermitage Museum, there is an account of the writer’s journey into Nubia, in which he says: “ I will cause to be brought unto thee fine oils and choice perfumes, and the incense of the temples, whereby every god is gladdened. Of myrrh hast thou not much; all that thou hast is but common incense. Ashipu came and delivered me, and he gave me a shipload of myrrh, fine oil, divers perfumes, eyepaint and the tails of giraffes.”
Other Indian traders exported cinnamon bark, cassia, (the aromatic bark of the Laurus Cassia of southern India, hardly distinguishable from the brown powdered form of cinnamon). Hadramaut and its brown variety came from India. Labdanum (derived from a cistus or rock rose), malabrathum (the leaves of the Cinnamon Tamela), opobalsamum (a second quality stacte), nardus or spikenard (Nardostychas Jatamansi Himalyan) and its Celtic variety (lavender or Saliunca Virg.), costus (root of Saussurea Lappa from Kashmir), cardamom from northern India and galbanum (the gum resin from Ferula galbaniflua of Persia) were imported.
Costly orris root was imported from Elis and Cyzicus (Kuzikos), roses from Phaselis also from Naples and Capua, saffron from the crocus of Cilician Soloi and Rhodes, spikenard from Tanius and Tarsus, dropwort and the extract of vine leaves from Cyprus and Adramythium, marjoram and quince from Cos, and henna and the fruit of a palm called adipsos were locally grown in Egypt. Ships brought precious opoponax from Yemen.
The Egyptians obtained their incense from Punt, now generally accepted to be Ethiopia (in some cases Southern Arabia), from the coastal range of Lebanon and Asia Minor in general, and from Palestine, Syria and Nubia. It was imported in the form of heaps of small grains (called "dry myrrh") or in the form of semi-liquid, plastic resins such as the "fragrant liquid myrrh." The fragrant liquid components seem to have been expressed from the semi-liquid gums or oleo resins in certain cases. Thus a fragrant liquid was produced from myrrh by compressing it. This liquid, called "stacte" by the Greeks, was added to certain perfumes and cosmetics. A Ptolemaic text illustrates this technique: "the red myrrh is weak because of its liquid content, its fragrance is very sweet, if expressed in the bag (bag-press) its content of liquid myrrh is one-fourth."
Queen Hatsepsut, who reigned Egypt in about 1600 b.c., sent an expedition to Punt to bring myrrh and other precious cargo from the fabled land. Her fleet consisted of five ships, which safely reached their destination; and when the captain, Nehsi, had given to Parahu, the Prince of Punt, the gifts which the Queen had sent, the natives loaded her ships with gold, myrrh, ebony, ivory, boomerangs, precious woods, and incense.
The Land of Punt was known as Pwenet or Pwene to the Egyptians, which is interpreted as "Pouen." Pouen to the Greek is known as Opone. The name Opone is an old city in Somalia. Its an obvious fact that Opone exchanged trade with ancient Egypt for centuries. The earliest exchange that we know of was during Pharaoh Khufu's reign during the Fourth Dynasty (c2613-2948 BCE).
Hatshepsut built the beautiful temple of Dier-el-Bahari, and decorated the walls with bas-reliefs illustrating her expedition to Punt, which was regarded as one of the most important events of her reign. The temple's walls illustrate the attempt to import "incense trees" from Punt to grow them in their own country and thus grow independent of the supply by long and dangerous expeditions down the Red Sea. The frankincense trees were brought back whole and planted in specially prepared ground, but apparently refused to grow.
The experiment seems to have failed since similar expeditions continued over the next three hundred years.. One of the inscriptions in the temple, referring to the pictures, records that there were “ thirty-one verdant incense trees brought among the precious things from the land of Punt for the majesty of this god Ammon, the lord of the terrestrial thrones.”
Ingredients used in ancient Egyptian perfumes:
- All-heal (Valerian) - Syria
- Alkanet - Southeast Europe, Turkey
- Apalathos
- Balm of Gilead (Opobalsamum, Carpobalsamum, xylobalsamum, wood balsam) - Arabia
- Bay (Laurel) - Greece, Rome
- Balanos Oil
- Bay
- Bdellium
- Bergamot - Italy
- Bitter almonds - Sicily, North Africa, Southern Gaul
- Bitumen
- Calamus (Sweet Flag) - Europe
- Camel Grass (Lemon Balm) - Middle East
- Cardamom - Northern India
- Cassia (Serichatum) - India
- Cinnabar - Spain
- Cinnamon - India
- Cinnamon Leaf (Malobathrum or Malabrathum) - India
- Cistus - Troas, Attica (Plain of Marathon), Gulf of Glaucus
- Clove - India
- Crocus - Cilicia Soli (Soloi), Asia Minor, Mediterranean
- Costus - Kashmir India, Arabia
- Cyperus - Italy, Siciliy, Europe
- Dropwort - Cyprus, Andramythium, Northern Europe, Asia Minor
- Fenugreek - Rhodes, Cos
- Frankincense - Punt (Somalia), Dhofar, Hadramaut
- Galbanum - Persia
- Germander - Holy Land, Greece (Thermopyle), Lower Egypt, Cyprus
- Gladiolus - Syria
- Helenium (Elecampane) -
- Ginger Grass (Amomum) - western Asia, India
- Glykos wine (sweet wine)
- Hammoniac (Ammoniac) gum - Oases of Ammon, Persia, Libya, Morocco
- Helenium - Egypt
- Henna - Egypt, Syria, India
- Honey - Egypt
- Jasmine - Arabia
- Juniper - Europe
- Labdanum - India, Crete, Gulf of Glaucus
- Lavender - Gulf of Glaucus
- Lentisk (Mastic) - Scio, Egypt
- Lily
- Marjoram (Sampsuchm) - Cos, Troas
- Maro
- Melilot (Sweet Clover) - Europe, Asia
- Mimosa (Acacia) - Egypt, Arabia
- Mint - Europe, North Africa
- Moringa Oil (ben) - North India
- Myrrh - Lebanon, Palestine
- Myrtle - Europe, North Africa
- Narcissus - Europe, North Africa
- Oenanthe (vine leaves perfume)
- Omphacium - Rome
- Opoponax - Yemen
- Orange Blossom
- Orris - Elis, Cyzicus
- Panace (Ginseng) -
- Pine - Arabia, Europe
- Pomegranate - Cyprus, Holy Land
- Quinces - Cos, Greece, Rome
- Roses - Paestum, Phaselis, Naples, Capua, Asia Minor
- Raisins - Egypt, Greece, Rome
- Rosewood
- Saffron - Cilican Soli, Attica (Plain of Marathon), Troas
- Salt
- Sesame Oil - Holy Land
- Sorrel - Egypt
- Spikenard - India, Arabia
- Storax - Gulf of Glaucus, Asia Minor
- Styrax - Syria
- Thyme - Egypt
- Turpentine- Mediterranean
- Wine - Egypt, Rome, Greece
- Wormwood - Cyprus
Carrier Oils:
Theophrastus seems to propose a theory in which the viscosity and "porosity" of the oil is important for its application in perfumes": "Now the composition and preparation of perfumes aim entirely, one may say, at making the odors last. That is why men make the oil the vehicle of them since it keeps a long time and also it is most convenient for sur. By nature indeed oil is not at well suited to take an odor, because of its close and greasy character, and of particular oils this is especially true to the most viscous such as almond oil, while sesame oil and olive oil are the least receptive of all. The oil most used is that derived from the Egyptian or Syrian balanos, since this is the least viscous; the olive oil which is most used is that pressed from coarse olives in the raw state (omphacium) since this is thought to be the least greasy. Some say that for unguent the oil derived from bitter almonds is best; these are abundant in Cilicia where an unguent is made from them. It is said that this is suitable for choice perfumes like the oil of the Egyptian balanos; this is suitable in itself, however the shells of the fruit are thrown into the oil to give it a good odor: indeed they are also thrown into that which is made from bitter almonds."
The tree from which the Oil of Ben was obtained was called in ancient times Balanos or Myrobalanon ( “Ointment acorn” ). It is the Moringa aptera, a plant indigenous to Arabia and Egypt, whose fruits, the Ben nuts, yield the oil by expression. One of the most famous perfumes was balanos, manufactured in the city of Mendes., in the Nile Delta, and exported from there to Rome. It was made from oil obtained by crushing the kernels found inside fruit of the balanos, or "false balsam," tree, mixed with myrrh and resin. The most popular basic oil was balanos and the most widespread the castor oil used by the poor.
The Cretans also exported large quantities of oil to Egypt, where it was used to make unguents and cosmetics, as well as to embalm mummies. The olive oil which is often used instead of the more expensive balanos-oil (often called "benben-oil" in the texts) came from Achaia and Syconia Sinope, Samos and later from Spanish Baetica too. The best olive oil was imported from Capua, which produced the Licinian oil.
Omphacium is an oil or juice pressed from unripe olives, dates or the seeds of grapes harvested in mid-summer. Pliny explains that "oil is made from aspalathus, reed, balsam, iris, cardamom, melilot, Gallic nard (lavender?), all-heal, marjoram, helenium and cinnamon root by steeping all these plants in (olive-) oil and then pressing out the juice. In the same way rush-oil, rose oil, henbane, lupine and narcissus oil are made."
Bitter almond oil was imported from Sicily and North Africa, some of it may have come from as far away as southern Gaul.
Unguents were made from animal (known as ainu in ancient Egyptian) such as oxen, geese or pigs or vegetable fats.
The Major Perfumes of Cleopatra & Julius Caesar:
Cyprinium: (oil of henna):
Cyprinum (also called kypros) was first made in Cyprus, later made in Egypt, had a sort of sweet scent and was made up of rush, alkanet, honey, salt, crushed henna flowers and seeds, calamus, wormwood, rosewood, cardamom, aspalathos, cinnamon, myrrh, sesame oil, all-heal, green olive oil, rainwater and old wine.
Theophrastus (300 BCE) tells us that "to make kypros they put in cardamom and aspalathos having first steeped them into sweet wine. The manufacture of kypros resembles that of rose-perfume, except that unless one takes out the flowers and squeezes them out, decay sets in and ruins the perfume by giving it a disagreeable smell, since they cause decay as they get soaked."
Pliny the Elder (60 AD) gives the recipe as henna seeds, green olive oil, sweet flag myrrh, cardamom and southernwood.
Dioscorides provides a recipe for henna, green olive oil, rainwater, aspalathos, sweet flag, cardamom, myrrh, cinnamon and old wine. A bit of oil was combined with water and the herbs were placed in it to macerate, except for the myrrh and sweet flag which steeped in wine. These two are then combined and boiled. The plant material is strained off, leaving an oil and then the fresh henna flowers were added. This is allowed to macerate and then strained off. To create a stronger scent, the step of adding henna flowers could be done another one or two times by using the same perfumed oil. Dioscorides also adds that one may add the pungent scent cinnamon to the blend as well. Dioscorides noted that such a perfume could then last for three years.
The perfume oil included in the Cleopatra & Julius Caesar set was made up of the following ingredients: Cyperus, cardamon, calamus, rose wood oil, wormwood oil, onphamcium (oil of unripe olive).
"The grass-like cyperus yields a pleasant violet scent. Cyprinium was first made on the island of Cyprus, the legendary birthplace of Venus (Aphrodite), but subsequently was manufactured in Egypt (Pliny, N.H. XIII.5). According to the 3rd century A.D. writer Athenaeus, the Egyptians made the best variety, followed by that produced by Cypriots, Phoenicians, and Sidonians (XV.38)."
Metopium: (oil of bitter almonds & galbanum):
Metopium (Metopion) was made up of oil of bitter almonds, mixed with honey, galbanum, wine, turpentine resin, myrrh, resin, cardamom, camel grass, balsamum seed (balm of gilead), omphacium and calamus (sweet flag).
"Bitter almond oil produces a fragrance reminiscent of marzipan. Metopium was one of the most popular unguents during the first half of the first century A.D. Again, the Egyptians and the Phoenicians made the best varieties (Pliny, N.H. XIII. 6, 8-9, Ath. XV.3)."The perfume oil included in the Cleopatra & Julius Caesar set was made up of the following ingredients: Bitter almonds, cardamom, rush, calamus, honey, wine, myrrh, balsam, galbanum, turpentine resin, onpahacium."
Myrtum Laurum: (oil of myrtle and laurel):
Myrtinum (oil of Persia) was composed of green olive oil, water, black myrtle leaves, marjoram, lily, fenugreek, myrrh, cassia, spikenard, rush, cinnamon, bay, omphacium, pomegranate rind, cypress, cyperus grass, camel grass, sweet flag, and mastic.
"Myrtle has a fresh, herbal scent while laurel has a slightly spicier fragrance. This was among the least costly of fragrant unguents and therefore among the most popular (Pliny, N.H. XIII. 10-11)."The perfume oil included in the Cleopatra & Julius Caesar set was made up of the following ingredients: Myrtle, laurel, marjoram, lily, fenugreek, myrrh, cassia, spikenard, rush, cinnamon.
Regale Unguentum: (royal unguent):
Royal Unguent was composed of twenty ingredients. Pliny says that 'Royal' perfume is so-called because it is produced for the kings of Parthia; it is a blend of behen-nut juice, costus, Syrian cinnamon, cardamom, spikenard, cat-thyme, myrrh, cinnamon bark, styrax tree gum, labdanum, balsam, Syrian reed and rush, wild grape, cinnamon leaf, cypress, rosewood, panace, gladiolus, marjoram, lotus, honey and wine. Nine of the ingredients of Royal perfume are grown in Italy, the conqueror of the world and indeed none in the whole of Europe excepting the iris in Illyria and the nard (lavender?) in Gaul. For wine, roses, myrtle leaves and olive oil may all be accepted as the common property of almost all countries." It closely resembles the "oil of holy ointment" mentioned in the Old Testament.
Other ingredients were lavender, germander, calamus, Malabar or Indian bay, saffron, henna, Indian almond, and omphacium.
Athenaeus reports that King Darius III Codomannos had 40 unguent-cookers in his retinue and the recipe of the Royal Ointment so popular in the classical world came from Persia.
"This exotic fragrance blended from a myriad of rare ingredients was originally created for the Asian kings of Parthia (Pliny, N.H., XIII.18). The ancient Parthian empire reached from the Euphrates River in the west to the Indus River in the east, and from the Indian Ocean north to the Oxus River."The perfume oil included in the Cleopatra & Julius Caesar set was made up of the following ingredients: Balanus oil, costus, amomum, cinnamon, cardamon, spikenard, maro, myrrh, cassia, styrax, laudanum, balsam, calamus, rush, lavender, clover, rosa pimpinellifolia, oenanthe, malobathrum, serichatum, cyperus, rose wood oil, panace, crocus blossoms, henna, marjoram, lotus, honey, wine, laurel, saffron.
Rhodinum: (oil of rose):
Rhodinon was composed of green olive oil, roses, camel grass, aspalathos, sweet flag, salt, cinnamon, calamus, omphacium, crocus blossoms, honey, wine, alkanet, rose leaves. Theophrastus mentioned that "to make rose-perfume they put in ginger-grass, aspalathos and sweet flag: and these are steeped as in the case of kypros. So too into each of the others they put the spices that suit them. Into rose-perfume moreover is put a quantity of salt: this treatment is peculiar to this perfume and involves a great deal of waste, 23 gallons of salt being put into eight gallons and a half of perfume."
Pliny records that he "was inclined to believe that the perfumes most widely used are derived from the rose, which grows everywhere in profusion. So the simplest compound was for a long time, attar of roses mixed severally with unripe olive or grape juice, rose and saffron blossoms, cinnabar, reed, honey, rush, flower of salt, anchusa or wine."
"Rhodinum was originally made in Phaselis in Lycia (not far from Antalya, Turkey), but later the best was made in Italy at Naples, Capua and Palestrina. Pliny wrote that roses were the most widely used ingredient in fragrant unguents, because the flower grew in great abundance everywhere (N.H. XIII. 5,9-10)."The perfume oil included in the Cleopatra & Julius Caesar set was made up of the following ingredients: Rose blossoms, crocus blossoms, cinnabar, calamus, honey, rush, alkanet, wine, sublimated salt, onphacium.
Susinum: (oil of lilies):
Susinum, stated by Dioscorides, was specifically a perfume primarily made up of water lilies but also had other ingredients of balanos oil, myrrh, calamus, omphacium, orris root, cardamom, moringa oil, sweet flag, cinnamon, honey, saffron, fragrant wine, crocus, salt, and balsam.
"The oil of lily blossoms has a honey-like floral scent with rich, fruity undertones reminiscent of figs and plums. Considered the most refined and delicate of fragrant unguents, susinum was made both in Sidon and in Egypt (Pliny, N.H. XIII. 11-12)."The perfume oil included in the Cleopatra & Julius Caesar set was made up of the following ingredients: lily blossoms, balsam, crocus blossoms, balanus, cinnamon, saffron, calamus, honey, myrrh.
Telinum: (oil of fenugreek):
Telinum used to be manufactured on the island of Telos, which is one of the Cyclades. Its manufacture was also found in Egypt. Telinum was at once bitter and sweet, its base was of honey, sweet marjoram, rose hips, fenugreek, cypress, calamus, melilot, onphacium, and balm, prepared with wine. This was reportedly a favorite of Julius Caesar.
"The crushed seeds of the herb fenugreek yield an intensely sweet fragrance with notes of a celery like spiciness. It was the most celebrated unguent in the time of the Greek comic playwright Menander (342-291 B.C.), but had lost its popularity by Pliny's day (1st century A.D.). Julius Caesar is said to have made use of this fragrance by Isadorus (Etymologies 4.12). Syria was known for making excellent telinum (Ath. XV.38)."
The perfume oil included in the Cleopatra & Julius Caesar set was made up of the following ingredients: fenugreek, cyperus, calamus, melilot, honey, maro, marjoram, onphacium.
Other Ancient Egyptian Perfumes:
- Aegyptium (The Egyptian) was an Egyptian perfume of the highest regard, made up of henna, cinnamon, honey, orange blossoms and myrrh first steeped in sweet glykos wine and then suspended in almond oil. It was used chiefly on the hands and feet
- Mendesium (Mendesian) was a Egypto-Roman perfume compounded in Egypt made up of galbanum, pine resin, lentisk, myrtle oil, cypress, myrrh, cassia, cinnamon, cardamom in balanos (ben) oil. The Mendesian perfume was known throughout the world as "the Egyptian perfume" and was considered by many to be the very best. Cleopatra was reported to have used the oil on her feet. Mendesian perfume was initially made from balanos oil, but beginning in Ptolemaic times, bitter almond oil became the norm along with the addition of omphacium, sweet rush, honey, wine and turpentine resin.
- Psagdi unguent of Egypt, also the name for an Egyptian incense that was made from pulverized spices — especially cinnamon and henna leaves, mixed with the perfume cyprinum- into pastilles called psagdi. Psagdi was greatly prized and known outside the country.
- Qam'ey ointment
- Irinum - balanos oil, palm tops, wine and orris root. Theophrastus describes it as "the superior iris-perfume, made by using the root dry and not subjecting it to fire: for then the virtue asserts itself more completely than when it is steeped in a liquid or subjected to fire. It also comes to pass that, if the perfumes have been first steeped their virtues are, as it were, squeezed out of the, to a great extent, because they take in and absorb less: and so, when they are making them astringent, they do not leave the spices in the oil for long, but take them out, so that they should not absorb an excessive amount." Dioscorides writes that the root of the iris was known as a perfume by the Egyptians. The final product apparently took 20 years to mature.
- Sampsuchinum (Amaracinum) - sweet marjoram, green olive oil, balm of gilead, camel grass, sweet flag, costus, cardamom, spikenard, myrrh, cinnamon, ginger, cassia, thyme, all-heal, bergamot, mint flowers, myrtle leaves, honey, salt.
- Cinnamominum - balanos oil, cinnamon, balsam of gilead seeds, myrrh, sweet flag, camel grass, fragrant honey
- Megalium (Megalion, Megallus) named after its inventor, the Athenian perfumer Megallos. The perfume was originally created in Ephesos in earlier times but was famous for being made in Alexandria. It was composed of balm of gilead, rush, reed, cassia, resin, balanos oil, calamus, spikenard, burnt resin (probably pine), cinnamon, myrrh, sweet flag, camel grass, costus, spikenard, cardamom and tinted pink with alkanet. This perfume had the reputation of being incredibly difficult to manufacture. Its base, balanos oil, had to be boiled for ten days and nights to remove impurities from it. After this was done, burnt resin and cinnamon mixed with myrrh, which had to be pressed for a few days, were added.
- Iasmelaion: jasmine, cardamom, cinnamon, saffron, myrrh, honey in sesame oil.
- Melinum - Is made similar to that of the rose perfume. Theophrastus mentions that "the oil is first made astringent, and is cold when the quinces are put into it: then they take them out before they turn black removing each batch before the next is put in: for as they turn black, decay ensues because they get soaked through - just as in the case of kypros." It is made with quinces, green olive oil, wine and salt.
- The Phoenician
- The Sidonian
- Panathenaicum made at Athens
Simple oils:
- Metopium: bitter almonds
- Narcissimum: narcissus
- Crocinum: saffron
- Rhodium: roses
- Melinum: quinces
- Regium
- Thurarium
- Malobathrum from Sidon
- Nardum
- Opobalsamum from Persia
- Amaracinum - sweet marjoram
- erpyllos - thyme
- Sisymbrion - mint
- Phoenician - bitter almonds and balsam
Pliny the Elder wrote, “Perfumes serve the purpose of the most superfluous of all forms of luxury; for pearls and jewels do nevertheless pass to the wearer’s heir, and clothes last for some time, but ingredients lose their scent at once, and die in the very hour when they are used… All that money is paid for a pleasure enjoyed by someone else, for a person carrying scent about himself does not smell it himself.”
Not all ancient peoples were fond of dousing themselves with perfume. In 361 BCE, Ageilaus, king of Sparta, where perfume was banned, visited Egypt and was entertained at an elaborate banquet. He was so disgusted by the excessive use of perfume by his fellow diners - a practice that he thought decadent and effeminate - that he stormed out. Agesilaus's Egyptian hosts in turn found his behavior uncivilized and uncouth. By contrast, Athens had its own perfume market, where scent was sold in specially manufactured vases.
In Roman times perfume was used by all classes, mainly to cover body odors, but also - drunk neat or in wine - to conceal bad breath. Wealthy Romans would perfume various parts of their bodies with different scents, sprinkling perfume on their guests at banquets while they reclined on scented couches and even perfume the walls of their bathrooms.
Incense:
In Egypt the use of incense dates back to about 1500 BCE. During excavations, remains of incense and incense-burners of the period have been found. Incense performed the function of "pleasing the nostrils of the gods" by burning. The smoke was believed to honor and please the gods, and in return, the gods would grant them good fortune and luck.
Incense was burned at all important events, including the coronation of a new pharaoh, opening of a shrine, the annual flooding of the Nile, religious festivals, and other national celebrations. Incense was burned daily in the temple, and outdoors at dusk and dawn. The Ebers Papyrus includes descriptions of the use of aromatics of the use of aromatics for magical, mystical and healing experiences. For example, incense was used as a facilitator in exorcisms and healing the sick. It was also used ritually in the act of lovemaking.
Many plants and herbs have no natural fragrance but give off sweet smelling fumes when burnt.
Kyphi:
No list could be complete without the mention of Ancient Egypt's most famous scent: kyphi. The name kyphi is actually the Greek form of the ancient Egyptian original hieroglyphic pronunciation “kapet”.
The most celebrated perfume used by the Egyptians was Kyphi, for which several recipes have been discovered. Its fame was so great that it was adopted and used by the Greeks and the Romans. It is mentioned by Dioscorides, Plutarch, Damocrates, and Galen.
Dioscorides' first century pharmacopoeia, which drew on recipes and ingredients from the eastern Mediterranean, included some sixteen recipes for medicinal perfumes, including one for the compound incense kyphi.
Loret, who made a special study of it, states that the earliest recipe consists of the following substances, and it had to be prepared with great care: Acorus calamus, Andropogon, Schoenanthus, Pistacia lentiscus, Laurus cassia, Cinnamomum, Peppermint, Convolvulus scoparius, of each equal parts. These were dried, powdered, and well mixed. The same quantities of Juniperus phoenicea, Acacia farnesiana, Henna, and Cyperus longus were to be macerated in wine for a day. Raisins were then to be steeped in wine for five days and a mixture made of resin terebinth and honey. The ingredients were then to be incorporated and myrrh added, and finally the whole mixed together.
The recipe given by Plutarch contains sixteen ingredients, and includes honey, wine, cypress, raisins, myrrh, aspalathus, seselis, sthcenanthus, saffron, dock, juniper (greater and lesser), cardamoms, and aromatic reed. He remarks: “ Its aromatic substances lull to sleep, allay anxieties, and brighten the dreams. It is made of things that delight most in the night and exhibits its virtues
by night.”
Damocrates in his recipe includes bdellium, spikenard, crocus, and cassia.
As a whole, kyphi had often included the following ingredients: juniper, sweet flag, cardamom, myrrh, cassia, cinnamon, mastic, mint, henna, mimosa, saffron, bdellium, spikenard, bitumen, sorrel, honey, wine, raisins, cyperus, turpentine, aspalathus, calamus, rush. In a papyrus found in a pyramid at Cheops, mention is made of myrrh, calamus, juniper, and coriander. It was one of the many ingredients for Kyphi which was used for fumigations, and also in the process of embalming. Kyphi was not only used to give an agreeable perfume to the body and clothes, but was also burnt in the house to make it smell sweet, and employed as a medicine.
It is frequently mentioned in the Babylonian and Assyrian cuneiform tablets, and was employed, together with other aromatic substances, for fumigations and incense to exorcise the demons of disease from the body of a sick man.
This complex fragrance was sometimes combined with oils to make a perfume, and it was also drunk as a medicine for liver and lung ailments. Plutarch, the great Greek historian, said of Kyphi: "Its aromatic substances lull to sleep, allay anxieties, and brighten dreams."
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